Aquatic Weed Control: Using Grass Carp (Martin W. Brunson)

Information Sheet Carp, or white amur, have been used for aquatic vegetation control in Mississippi for the past two decades. These fish, used as a 'biological control' for aquatic vegetation, can be effective and cost efficient when stocked at appropriate rates and when the problem-weed species is a plant preferred by carp. Although these fish are voracious herbivores, they exhibit preferences for... To read the complete article, Click here

Understanding and Control of Gangrenous Dermatitis in Poultry Houses (Dustan Clark, Susan Watkins, Frank Jones and Bob Norton)

Gangrenous dermatitis (GD) sometimes seems to occur almost spontaneously in birds 4-8 weeks of age. GD is also known as "gangrenous cellulitis," "wing rot" or "red leg." GD usually starts with the appearance of small pimples on the skin, soon progressing to involve large areas. Birds with GD have moist raw or dark areas where the underlying muscles are exposed. The breast, wings, rump and abdomen are most commonly involved. Blood-tinged fluid may be found beneath the skin. Fluid can be jelly-like in consistency. The liver and spleen may be swollen and... To read the complete article, Click here

Light finds the parasitic nematode in fish fillet

Parasitic nematodes are microscopic, but a major problem in the fish filleting industry. Scientists at Nofima have discovered that light and automation provides a better fillet. Separating the good fish fillet from the bad is generally done by hand based on observations when the fish is being processed. But a machine can soon be introduced into the... For further information, Click here

Aroma E

Aroma E consists of active ingredients that have shown documented effects on health- and performance in official feed trials with pigs and poultry. These are combined with active ingredients that in practical tests have shown the ability to interfere with the normal slurry processes, leading to more homogeneous slurry, together with a reduction in ... Further information, Click here

New Concepts on the Horizon: Phytogenics in Poultry Production (Tobias Steiner)

Modern poultry and egg production is facing several challenges. Growing demand for poultry products and rising prices for raw materials require the implementation of optimal production conditions with the aim to secure high animal performance. Phytogenic feed additives have gained considerable attention in the feed industry and producers are increasingly incorporating them into feeding programs. Today, 61 (non-EU) or 70% (EU) of the companies are using phytogenic additives in broiler feeds (World Poultry, 2008). In comparison to Antibiotic Growth Promoters, phytogenics... To read the complete article, Click here

Neptune to sell first batch of insect-based aquafeed

Neptune Industries, Inc., a world leader in the development of sustainable solutions for aquaculture, headquartered here, said it has received a Letter of Intent to purchase over 40 tons per month of its Ento-Protein (TM) , an insect-based alternative to fishmeal, from Zeigler Bros, Inc. of Gardners, PA. Ento-Protein (TM) is a high quality sustainable... For further information, Click here

Lactoburst* A Probiotic Immune Booster

Lactoburst * is a specially formulated probiotic formulation which would impart poultry nourishment and be a healthy substitute to achieve disease free & vigorous growth rates. Lactoburst * contains unique probiotic, non-pathogenic bacterial cultures along with yeast & vital enzymes... Further information, Click here

Two new fish species spotted in shallow water

Two fish species, the Dusky Spinefoot and the tiny Dalmatian Blenny, have been added to the list of fish recorded in Maltese waters. Small numbers of the Dusky Spinefoot, Siganus luridus, were noted in different occasions at Delimara, feeding on bottom algae a few metres from shore. Both species were... For further information, Click here

Two new fish species spotted in shallow water

Two fish species, the Dusky Spinefoot and the tiny Dalmatian Blenny, have been added to the list of fish recorded in Maltese waters. Small numbers of the Dusky Spinefoot, Siganus luridus, were noted in different occasions at Delimara, feeding on bottom algae a few metres from shore. Both species were... For further information, Click here

Effects of Fish Size and Feeding Frequency on Channel Catfish Production (Robinson and Li)

Mississippi State University Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) raised in ponds are typically fed daily to apparent satiation to obtain maximum growth. However, under certain economic circumstances, catfish producers may feed less than daily to reduce feed cost and minimize economic losses. Robinson and Rushing (1994) compared different feeding strategies (once daily, every other day [EOD], once every third day [ETD] to satiation, and once daily to half satiation) for pond-raised channel catfish. They reported that maximum production was achieved by... To read the complete article, Click here

Aqua Technologies: Imaging system sorts fish

In the US Pacific Northwest, different species and stocks of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) commingle as they migrate toward spawning areas. This often results in mixed-stock fisheries in which some stocks are abundant while others require protection. In fisheries that exploit complex stock mixtures, mass marking and mark-selective fishing emerged as... For further information, Click here

Cadmium and lead in bivalves: importance for food safety

The National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research (NIFES) has analysed the content of cadmium and lead in scallops and horse mussels harvested in Norwegian waters. The results show levels above EU's maximum limits when analysing the digestive gland of the scallop and the kidney of the horse mussel. Cadmium in the digestive gland from... For further information, Click here

Visible Implant Elastomer Tags (VIE)

VIE Shrimp and Fish Tags Hand Injection Kits The Visible Implant Fluorescent Elastomer (VIE) tagging system was developed to provide externally visible internal marks for fish and other aquatic animals. The elastomer system utilizes a specially developed, biocompatible... Further information, Click here

New Ballast Treatment Could Help Shield Lake Superior from Deadly Fish Disease

A Michigan Technological University professor has developed a new water treatment that could help keep a deadly fish disease out of Lake Superior. David Hand, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Michigan Tech, has devised a simple way to treat ballast water in vessels ranging from pleasure craft to ore boats. His method is... For further information, Click here

Patent Filed for New Oxygenation Product for Fish Farming in Tidal Areas

On the heels of the emerging aquaculture industry's 'Blue Revolution,' Clean Water Scientific, Inc. announced yesterday it has filed a patent application with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office for its groundbreaking new product O2 at Sea. The aquaculture revolution, similar to the agriculture industry's mid-century focus on... For further information, Click here

Brown Blood Disease (Robert Durborow and Dr. M. David Crosby)

Brown blood disease occurs in fish when water contains high nitrite concentrations.Nitrite enters a fish culture system after feed is digested by fish and the excess nitrogen is converted into ammonia, which is then excreted as waste into the water. Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN; NH3 and NH4+) is then converted to nitrite (NO2) that, under normal conditions, is quickly converted to nontoxic nitrate (NO3) by naturally occurring bacteria. Uneaten (wasted) feed and other organic material also break down into ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate in a similar manner. Brown blood disease occurs in fish when... To read the complete article, Click here

Help Create Optimal Show Performance with Vaccination

Competitions bring together people and horses from different corners of the country, but they also can bring disease. Ensuring horses are properly vaccinated before show season can help protect competing horses and prevent loss of performance. "Horses can be exposed to disease in the stable, during the trip or through contact with... For further information, Click here

International AquaFeed Magazine

International Aquafeed Magazine is published bimonthly by Perendale Publishers Ltd specifically for the aquafeed manufacturers and aquaculture industries together with all those working in the aquafeeding business including consultants, suppliers and research and development specialists worldwide. Based in the UK, we address... For further information, Click here

Taurine is not an essential amino acid for grow-out Atlantic salmon

Fish meal used in fish feed contains high levels of taurine, which is not the case for plant proteins. What are the consequences when the levels of plant protein in the diet are high? New research at NIFES shows that the farmed salmon's requirement for taurine is met when the feed contains sufficient amount of the precursor amino acids. Fish meal... For further information, Click here

Aqua: DHA improves survival and development of halibut larvae

New research from Norway shows the levels of DHA that ensure better growth, survival and normal pigmentation in Atlantic halibut larvae. The bottleneck in halibut farming is related to insufficient supply of important nutrients. Two feeding trials at NIFES, in collaboration with the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research, suggest for the first time... For further information, Click here

Help Create Optimal Show Performance with Vaccination

Competitions bring together people and horses from different corners of the country, but they also can bring disease. Ensuring horses are properly vaccinated before show season can help protect competing horses and prevent loss of performance. "Horses can be exposed to disease in the stable, during the trip or through contact with... For further information, Click here

Pre-Lambing Management of Ewes (Lowell D. Breeden)

How the pregnant ewe is managed during the last six weeks of gestation will have a very definite effect on the birth weight, growth and survivability of the lamb. As the following management procedures are discussed, remember that each sheep operation is different. Modify and adapt these practices to your operation. Several of these procedures may be done at the same time. This will cut down on the number of times and the labor involved in handling the pregnant ewe. No harm or damage to the ewe and/or her fetus should occur if she is handled gently, but firmly, and if you use common sense... To read the complete article, Click here

Separation Anxiety on Pets: Please Mom (or Dad), Don't Go!

That's what dogs with separation anxiety are saying when they notice their owners grabbing car keys and heading for the door after giving them a kiss good bye (and maybe a lipstick imprint on their forehead). This behavior disorder, which is often confused with other behavior problems linked with too little exercise or under socialization, is... For further information, Click here

Alfalfa Cubes for Horses Robert J. Coleman, L.M. Lawrence and J. Henning)

Forage is the basis for feeding programs for all classes of horses. Forage contains many nutrients, and the fiber provided by forage is essential for the maintenance of the horse's gastrointestinal health. Hay and pasture are the typical forage sources for horses, but when growing or harvesting conditions limit their availability, horse owners have to consider alternative forage sources. Forage cubes are gaining popularity as an alternative to feeding long-stem hay. The cubes available may be... To read the complete article, Click here

Tool to improve ocean aquaculture

A new automated tool that provides support for sea cage aquaculture managers in making crucial decisions about locating their sites and determining the number of fish that can be sustainably farmed is now available. A project undertaken by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) in collaboration with the... For further information, Click here

AveSui Latin America 2008

Swine: Practical Ideas to Address High Feed and Production Costs

Pork producers are facing a period of rapidly increasing feed and production costs. The following management tips and resources have been compiled by the Pork Checkoff to assist producers in identifying opportunities to increase efficiencies and reduce costs. This information was gathered from experts and producers across... For further information, Click here

International market expansion for Landcatch

A delivery of eggs to South Africa and a first time supply of smolts to Denmark are the most recent additions to a growing list of countries into which Landcatch Ltd., the Scotland and Chile-based salmon breeding company, is selling its pedigree strains of Atlantic salmon. "The continuing geographic expansion of Landcatch stock placement is... For further information, Click here

How Much Does it Cost to Raise Dairy Goats?

There has been a lot of interest in the dairy goat industry over the past year. I get many calls asking about dairy goats, how much land it takes to raise them, what to feed them, and how to manage them. The one question I get asked very rarely is: how much does it cost?... For further information, Click here

Food allergens (Genon Laboratories Ltd)

Food allergens Detection and quantification of foodborne allergens: peanut, hazelnut, mandel/almond, egg, ei protein, beta-lactoglobulin, blg, b-lactoglobulin, sesame, gluten (gliadin), soya, shellfish, casein, histamine. Highly sensitive quantitative tests available plus low cost qualitative test for when a yes/no result is satisfactory.... Further information, Click here

Canola protein to feed aquaculture

Protein extracted from Saskatchewan canola could be finding its way to fish farms around the world to replace the disappearing Peruvian anchovy.Toronto-based Bio-Extraction Inc. (Bio-Exx) is building a $10-million low-volume, low-temperature canola crushing plant in the Corman Industrial Park to provide... For further information, Click here

Lowly 'balunggay' is protein food for tilapia

The lowly, less utilized Balunggay (scientific name: Moringa oleifera, Malunggay in Tagalog) is a good source of protein for Tilapia feeds. Wally Afuang, Executive Director of the Northern Negros Aquatic Resources Management Council (NNARMAC), said the Balunggay tree holds a... For further information, Click here

New pea protein based aquafeed factory taking shape in Germany

The construction of Aller Aqua's pea protein factory in Germany and one of the most modernized fish feed factories in Europe is nearing completion project is a jont-venture between Emsland Stärke GmbH (Germany) and Aller Aqua Technology (Denmark). The Aller Aqua unit, Aller Aqua Technology, the largest stockholder in the... For further information, Click here

Bull Selection for Heifers (Scott Greiner)

The economics of cow-calf production emphasize the importance of replacement heifers giving birth to their first calf by the time they are two years old. Since this female is bred shortly after reaching puberty, her first calf will be born before she is fully developed and mature. Therefore, this first-calf heifer warrants special management and breeding considerations to minimize the frequency of calving difficulty (dystocia). Dystocia must be minimized because it is expensive. Of obvious concern is the loss of females as well as calves through calving problems. However... To read the complete article, Click here

Castration of Pigs (Allen Harper)

May find a video sent by a community member showing his castration technique. Discretion advised. Castration of male livestock intended for meat production is a long standing management practice. In North American swine production, castration is essentially universal and only a select few male pigs are left intact as potential breeder boars. There are two primary reasons for feeding out barrows rather than boars in pork production. The first is behavioral. As the age and body size of sexual maturity is reached, boars tend to be more aggressive with pen mates and more difficult to handle than barrows of similar age and weight. The second and perhaps most important reason is that... To read the complete article, Click here

Protecting Oysters from Burrowing Shrimp

For members of the multimillion-dollar West Coast shellfish industry, their world is the oyster. Unfortunately, the oyster industry's ability to meet rising demands is hampered by two species of burrowing shrimp. So Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists are collaborating with colleagues from... For further information, Click here

Using New Genetic Techniques to Raise Bigger Yellow Perch

With the help of genetics, Ohio fish farmers will be able to raise the crème de la crème of yellow perch -- the state's No. 1 food fish -- with the potential to increase production efficiency up to 50 percent over current growth standards. Ohio State University aquaculturists with OSU South Centers at Piketon are analyzing the... For further information, Click here

Research program to enhance animal by-products value and utilization in aquaculture feeds

In Montreal, Canada, the Fats and Proteins Research Foundation, Inc. (FPRF) enhanced their international program aimed to support research on the use of animal by-products in aquaculture feeds. "The latest $112,000 in grants builds on ongoing work in order to understand the potential role of attractants and... For further information, Click here

Study shows salmon grow bigger with colder temperatures

A study carried out by the Royal Veterinary College (RVC) in London has shown Atlantic salmon incubated at lower temperatures are longer, heavier and more muscular than those incubated at higher temperatures.With global salmon consumption having more than doubled in the last 15 years, optimising the embryonic development of the fish will increase... For further information, Click here

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Researching new aquaculture adventure Farming of sea urchins is in the wind - and there are already several Norwegian sea urchin farmers. Over a period of many years, Nofima scientists have acquired knowledge that now makes sea urchin farming possible. 'The sea urchin is new as an aquaculture species,' says... For further information, Click here

Ganglioneuritis virus: Fears for future of abalone industry

Ganglioneuritis virus: Fears for future of abalone industry There are fears a deadly shellfish virus could infect Tasmanian and South Australian waters within months. Tasmania's Abalone Council is supporting calls for a ban on human activity on stretches of the Victorian coastline. The ganglioneuritis virus has... For further information, Click here

Breeding can reduce salmon lice problems

Breeding can reduce salmon lice problems

Some salmon are more easily infested with salmon lice than others. Utilising this in the breeding of farmed salmon can save millions and reduce the infestation pressure of salmon lice among wild salmonids. These are the findings of a recent Nofima research project. Recent media coverage has indicated that salmon lice have become resistant to... For further information, Click here

Breeding can reduce salmon lice problems

Breeding can reduce salmon lice problems Some salmon are more easily infested with salmon lice than others. Utilising this in the breeding of farmed salmon can save millions and reduce the infestation pressure of salmon lice among wild salmonids. These are the findings of a recent Nofima research project. Recent media coverage has indicated that salmon lice have become resistant to... For further information, Click here

The use of acid-based preservatives as storage control for fish, offal or by-catch (Christian Lückstädt)

The use of acid-based preservatives as storage control for fish, offal or by-catch

Almost one-third of the world fish harvest is not used for direct human consumption, but is converted into fish meal or fish oil for further application in animal feed. Therefore, about 25 million tonnes of fish are annually handled and processed in ways other than fresh, frozen, smoked or canned which are eaten (Balios, 2003). The supply of huge volumes of high quality fish meal is necessary to supply the rapid growing aquaculture industry, which is growing with around 10% annually (FAO). The amount of high quality fish meal of the total amount of fish meal is expected to grow from... To read the complete article, Click here

Processing Feed Grains

Summary

• Processing allows grain to be mixed with supplements, increases digestibility, and affects palatability, digestion and passage rates.
• Dry rolling is recommended processing method of grain for cattle.
• Supplements can be pelleted to prevent separation and sorting.
• All kernels in dry-rolled barley grain should be broken and fines (particles less than 1 mm in diameter) should be less than 3%. The digestibility of whole barley will be 10-25% less than that of rolled barley.
• Corn does not need to be processed although improvements in feed efficiency of up to 10% may be associated with steam-processing.
• Oat grain does not need to be processed for calves but should be dry-rolled for older cattle.
• The feeding value of unprocessed wheat will be reduced by 20-25%.

Does Grain Need to be Processed? Although it is possible to feed whole grain to cattle, it is normally processed for a variety of reasons.

• Reduced separation and sorting of feed: It is impossible to mix protein, mineral, or vitamin supplements and feed additives with whole grain and have the material stay well mixed from the mixer to the animals mouth. If whole grain is fed, mix the grain and supplement together with silage to help keep it together or use a pelleted supplement to prevent separation.
• Processing for improved digestibility: The main reason why grain is processed is to increase digestibility. The hull is a barrier, which is relatively impermeable to rumen microorganisms and digestive enzymes and must be broken by either processing or chewing, otherwise much of the useful nutrients in the grain will pass out in the manure. Data demonstrates the percentage of wheat, barley and corn dry matter remaining undigested after various times of exposure to microbial digestion in the rumen. The grain was incubated in the rumen as whole kernels or after it had been cut into quarters. Animals vary with respect to their ability to break open the grain by chewing. Sheep, for example, chew more rapidly and have a smaller mouth than cattle, so whole grain can be used in their diet. Similarly grain processing is less important for calves than for older cattle, particularly when these have bad teeth. The structure of the grain kernel also influences the need for grain processing. Small, hard kernels require processing whereas there is some question whether it is economical to process the larger oat kernel for calves or corn grain for older cattle.
• Other intangible benefits from grain processing: Processing can have either a positive or negative effect on grain palatability. Cattle fed whole grain are more susceptible to bloat and digestive upsets than those fed rolled grain and that individual animal performance is much more variable when whole grain is fed. The rate of passage of grain though the digestive tract and hence the proportion of digestion which occurs in the rumen and intestines can be influenced by grain processing methods. Processing can also change the rate of digestion of the grain in the rumen. Steam-rolled grain disappears more slowly from bags suspended in the rumen than dry-rolled grain. Treatment of grain with chemicals such as formaldehyde or ammonia decreases the rate of starch and protein degradation in the rumen. There is insufficient information to draw firm conclusions concerning the ideal ruminal degradation rate thus grain should be processed to optimize digestibility as discussed below.

Processing Methods

• Rolling: Recommended grain processing method for cattle is rolling it by passing between two large steel rollers since this is the least expensive and the amount of fine particles in feeds can be kept to a minimum. Fines are undesirable since they reduce palatability, increase sorting and feed refusals, increase the incidence of acidosis, and may contribute to respiratory diseases. Grain can be rolled without the addition of moisture (dryrolling), after addition of water (see tempering), or after the addition of steam (steam-rolling). Steam may be applied under pressure for a short duration or at atmospheric pressure for a longer interval. Several large feedlots in Alberta now temper grain prior to rolling to reduce fines. Tempering also facilitates processing of grain containing different sizes of kernels; reduce loss of grain as dust during processing; reduce dustiness and improve handling characteristics; and increase the moisture content of the diet. Since the moisture content of tempered or steam rolled grain is normally increased by 4 to 8%, storage times must be less than 1 to 2 days to minimize heating and spoilage problems. With the exception of corn and sorghum, the nutritive value of grain with water or steam added is normally less for feedlot cattle than that of dry-rolled grain on an equal weight basis because of the diluting effect of the additional moisture on grain nutrients.
• Grinding: Barley can be ground through a hammer mill which consists of rotating hammers which strike the grain repeatedly until the particles are small enough in size to pass though a screen. A screen size with openings of 9.5 mm is the minimum which should be used for cattle. A more uniform grind is obtained when the hammer speed is reduced. Burr mills, in which grain is passed between a stationary and a rotating plate, can also be used to grind grain for cattle. Grinding is not as desirable for cattle as rolling because processing costs are higher and more fines are produced.
• Pelleting: The total concentrate mixture, grain portion of the diet, or supplements and feed additives can be pelleted together or separately by forcing the material through small openings in a die under pressure. Pelleted supplements are very useful since pelleting prevents particle segregation during handling and feeding. It is too expensive to process grain by this method for cattle. Moreover, fine particle sizes in pelleted grain have resulted in increased rumen wall damage and reduced performance in the feedlot when all-concentrate diets have been fed. Fine particle sizes in pelleted grain are not as detrimental with diets containing adequate amounts of forage.
• High moisture grain: Grain is physiologically mature when kernel moisture falls below 35%. Grain yields are slightly higher when grains are harvested at 30% moisture because of reduced losses from shattering and retention of more small kernels in the harvesting process (see High Moisture Grain Production). High moisture grain must, however, be stored under anaerobic conditions in a silo or silo bag to prevent spoilage. Research has demonstrated that rates and efficiency of gain do not differ when dry barley and high moisture barley are compared in the feedlot.

Other methods

• Grain can be micronized with infrared treatment, popped, boiled, etc. Generally, these processing methods are not recommended since they do not result in sufficient increases in rate or efficiency of gain to justify the expense. Micronization of wheat which increased kernel temperature to 90 to 100 oC for 1 minute, slowed the rate of degradation of the wheat in the rumen, and improved daily gain and feed efficiency.

Processing Barley Grain

Barley grain should be processed for all classes of cattle since whole grains are not chewed enough to reach maximum digestibility.

Tempering: See Tempered vs. Dry Barley for Feedlot Cattle.

Dry vs. steam rolling: Steam treatment of barley grain for a short period of time has not resulted in improved cattle performance even though some measured an increase in dry matter digestibilities from 77 to 79% when barley was steamed for 70 seconds. Similarly, digestibilities may be slightly improved by steaming barley for 20 to 25 minutes before rolling or flaking, and the product has a better appearance than dry-rolled grain, generally there has been little response in either cattle liveweight gain or efficiency of gain to this processing method (Table 1, below). However, steam rolling may be beneficial with very dry grain or when steam processing allows grain with varying kernel sizes to be processed more uniformly by reducing the amount of shattering thereby reducing the amount of fines produced.

Degree of processing
The degree to which barley is processed has a large influence on digestibility as well as rate and efficiency of gain. Excessive amounts of fine particles in processed barley can reduce palatability, cause a greater degree of digestive upsets and abscessed livers (3, 12), cause rumenitis and abnormal papillae within the rumen (13), reduce ruminal pH and microbial growth (26), and result in reduced rates and efficiencies of gain (13). The degree to which fine particles in feed can reduce feedlot performance is a little unclear at this time, although there is evidence that rate of gain will be reduced more than feed efficiency by over-processing. Mathison (16) reported that steers fed ground barley (1/4 inch or 6.4 mm screen) grew 6% more slowly, had a 0.9% poorer feed efficiency, and had less carcass fat than those fed rolled barley.

Excessive (>3%) fines (particles passing through a screen with 0.8-1.0 mm openings) therefore must be avoided. If fines are a problem the grain should be tempered or steamed before rolling. If this is not feasible, add 2-3% molasses to keep the fines from separating from the larger particles. Excessive fines cause less problems when grain is fed in a total mixed diet containing silage.

Table 1. Dry versus steam rolling of barley1. Type of cattle % Barley Daily gain (kg) Dry matter/gain
Dry rolled % increase
with steam rolling Dry rolled % decrease
with steam rolling

Steers 62-75 1.31 7.6 6.35 -1.4
231 kg steers 85 1.67 1.2 5.41 -1.8
395 kg steers 89 1.64 1.2 5.98 -2.8
340 kg steers 81 1.56 -1.9 6.16 +1.9
260 kg steers 74 1.31 -2.2 5.77 5.5
Mean 1.50 1.18 5.93 0.28
1Barley was steamed for 20 min. with the exception of the trail of Hale et al. (10) in which it was steamed for 25 min.
2Result with thin flakes;with course flakes there was a -1.5% improvement in gain and a +2.4 improvement in feed efficiency.
Reference: Hale et al. 1966; Grimson et al. 1987; Mathison et al. 1991; Engstrom et al. 1992; Zinn et al. 1992

Because of the problems of excessive fines in some dry-rolled grain, nutritionists have previously been careful to recommend barley should only be processed enough so that majority of the kernels are cracked. The appearance of some whole kernels was considered to be unavoidable and a less serious problem than the presence of fines. With new information and the routine use of silage in feedlot diets it is now clear that the proper degree of processing is when essentially all of the barley particles are broken. Research from Alberta and California supporting this concept is shown in Figure 2.


Figure 2. Effect of degree of processing on feed dry matter intake to liveweight gain ratio. Open markers are steam-rolled; closed markers are dry-rolled barley. Sources: (14, 19, 36).

Experimental results demonstrate that the effect of processing on barley digestibility is not markedly influenced by the proportion of grain in the diet. A description of the expected effect of processing on the feeding value of barley grain for feedlot cattle is given in Table 2. Improper processing will have a greater effect on older cattle. Specific recommendations are that less than 3% of the weight of a sample of processed barley should be small enough to pass through a 1 mm screen. In an Alberta survey, 75% of samples collected in commercial feedlots met this criteria. It is also recommended that the number of whole kernels in the sample be less than 3% of the sample weight when whole kernels are defined as those which cannot be easily broken with the fingers. More than 60% of samples collected at commercial feedlots met this criteria in the Alberta survey. Because of the importance of degree of processing on efficiency of grain utilization, and the difficulty in describing the degree of process precisely by just looking at a sample, it is recommended that cattle feeders have a sieve with a 1 mm screen for determination of fine material in processed feeds and another with a 2 mm screen for quick separation of whole kernels from the rest of the grain sample. A simple scale is also required.

Table 2. Description of Rolled Barley for Cattle. Processing degree Fines1 (%) Whole kernels2 (%) Loss in feed value3 (%)
Cracked Not cracked
Whole grain <1>6 0 - ?
1Fines are those particles, which pass through a 1 mm screen.
2Expressed as a percentage of total sample weight.
3Approximate loss in digestibility. Losses in feed efficiency will be similar for high grain diets but higher when rates of grain are low. If excessive fines are present, intakes and rates of gain will be reduced but reductions in feed efficiency will be less than reductions in rate of gain.

Barley Processing Index

The barley processing index (L. Rode and K. Beauchemin) is a simple measure of bushel weight (weight per unit volume) after processing as a percentage of bushel weight before processing to obtain the Processing Index (PI). Commercial feedlots typically have a PI of 80%. It is suggested that maximum feed efficiency and average daily gain is obtained when the PI is between 80 to 85%. It is unlikely there is an optimum PI for all cattle types, diets and management but rather a range. PI is an easy procedure to apply at the feedlot since most grain processing facilities have equipment for measuring the weight of a known volume of grain.

The limitations to PI is that weight per unit volume data is only significantly related to kernel widths and that it is influenced by the moisture content at which the grain is rolled. Since fat kernels tend to have higher moisture content than thin kernels, there is a risk of processed barley still having significant whole grain present and yet still have a PI within the suggested 80 to 85% range. For example, in one trial (19) temper rolled barley had a lower weight per unit volume as a percentage of the original weight than dry rolled barley even though there were more whole undamaged kernels in the tempered barley samples. Moreover, although the correlations were obtained across moisture levels, concentrates which contained slightly rolled and medium rolled tempered grain had similar volume weights even though 71% and 38% whole undamaged kernels by weight, respectively in these samples. This suggests that procedures using PI (weight per unit volume) have limited application in precisely describing degree of processing of barley grain. Where PI can be most useful is in the repeatability of quality control on the farm. Increased quality control of barley rolling can be achieved by the feed mill operator taking repetitive PI samples and relating back to that particular grain.

Processing Corn Grain

Arizona data summarized by Hale (11) indicates that processing corn grain has very little effect on rate of liveweight gain and that dry-rolling has no effect on feed efficiency of cattle fed corn-based diets. Although steam-rolling and flaking improved feed efficiency in these and other studies, it has generally been concluded (26, 29, 2) that processing of corn grain is not economically justified.

Processing Oat Grain

There is little data concerning the effect of processing oat grain on the digestibility and performance of feedlot cattle. However, my assessment is that rolling will not improve the digestibility of oats by more than 5% for calves and 10% for cattle up to 2 to three years of age. Therefore rolling of oats cannot be economically justified in terms of increasing digestibility for calves less than 6 months of age. For older cattle, oats should be rolled in most cases. There is no information concerning the effect of steam-rolling on the feeding value of oat grain but the extra expense of this processing method would not appear to be justified.

Processing Wheat Grain

Starch degradability of unprocessed wheat averaged 56% and ranged from 14 to 83% in studies of Tolland (32), Tolland (33), Orskov et al. (28), and Fulkerson and Michell (8). There is therefore little doubt that it will pay to process wheat for cattle since rolling costs will be less than the 20-25% loss in energy content of the diet if it is not rolled.

Table 3. Whole Versus Processed Oats for Cattle. Type of animal % Oats in diet Diet digestibility1 Ref2
Rolled (%) % decrease for whole
2 years 67 81.0 5.6 2
17 months 50 66.4 10.1 3
12-18 months 59-74 64 -2.8 4
12-18 months 33-51 64 1.6 5
Cows 50 62.6 1.9 6
Mean 67.4 3.3
1Losses in feed efficiency will be similar for high grain diets but higher when rates of gain are low.
2References 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are Tolland (32) (Values are only for the grain portion of the diet only), Morgan and Campling (25), McDonald and Hamilton (23), McDonald and Hamilton (23) and Moran (24), respectively.

It is unclear how different processing procedures for wheat compare. There will however; be less fines in dry-rolled than in ground wheat. Although improvements in feed efficiency have been reported when wheat is steam-rolled instead of being dry-rolled (36), the reason for this difference is an improvement in intake and not an increase in the amount of useful energy from the wheat. It is therefore doubtful if a response to steam processing can be expected, particularly if wheat is included in a diet containing silage.

McAllister et al. (22) have demonstrated that micronization of wheat decreases the rate of its degradation in the rumen and has a positive effect on rate and efficiency of gain (Table 4). Therefore, if available, micronized wheat should be fed rather than rolled wheat when more than 50% wheat is included in the diet.

Table 4. Micronized vs. Steam-Rolled Wheat1. Barley:wheat ratio and treatment Daily gain (kg) Dry matter intake (kg/day) Dry matter/gain ratio
58:42
Steam-rolled 1.52 8.92 6.83
Micronized 1.49 9.06 6.52
42:58
Steam-rolled 1.24 9.24 7.26
Micronized 1.68 9.83 5.99
0:100
Steam-rolled 1.29 10.11 8.17
Micronized 1.51 9.33 6.07
1Data from McAllister et al. (22). Diets contained 80% grain on an as-fed basis.

Conclusions

Normally grain should be processed to maximize net returns in cattle feeding operations. The exceptions are that it may not be economical to process oats for calves or corn for various classes of cattle. In virtually all situations barley grain should be processed since the costs of processing will be less than the minimal 15% loss in feeding value of unprocessed barley.

The recommended method of processing grain for cattle is dry rolling in most instances.

The degree of to which grain is processed can have an important influence on the efficiency of feed utilization in the cattle. For this reason it is recommended that cattle feeders routinely sieve samples of processed grain to ensure that they are achieving an ideal degree of processing.

References

Beauchemin et al. 1994. Effects of mastication on digestion of whole cereal grains by cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 72:236-246.
Campling, R.C. 1991. Processing cereal grains for cattle — a review. Livestock Prod. Sci. 28:223-234.
Cheng and R. Hironaka. 1973. Influence of feed particle size on pH, carbohydrate content, and viscosity of rumen fluid. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:417-422.
Christensen, D.A. 1969. Grain processing: Introduction. Pages 15-16 in 14th Annual Stockman’s Day Report. Department of Animal Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask.
Engstrom et al. 1992. Effect of ß-glucan, starch and fibre content of barley grain on its digestion and utilisation by steers. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 37:33- 46.
Fiems et al. 1990. Effect of grain processing on in sacco digestibility and degradability in the rumen. Arch. Anim. Nutr. 40:713-721.
Fluharty and Loerch. 1989. Chemical treatment of ground corn to limit ruminal starch digestion. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 69:173-180.
Fulkerson and Michell. 1985. Production response to feeding wheat grain to milking cows. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 25:253-256.
Grimson et al. 1987. Effects of barley volume-weight and processing method on feedlot performance of finishing steers. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67:43-53.
Hale et al. 1966. Effect of steam processing and flaking milo and barley on the performance and digestion by steers J. Anim. Sci. 25:392-396.
Hale, W.H. 1980. Pages in Digestive physiology and nutrition of ruminants. Vol. 3. Practical Nutrition. 2nd ed. B & B Corvallis, Oregon.
Hironaka et al. 1973. Influence of particle size of concentrate on rumen conditions associated with feedlot bloat. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:75-80.
Hironaka et al. 1979. Influence of feed particle size on rate and efficiency of gain, characteristics of rumen fluid and rumen epithelium, and numbers of rumen protozoa. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 59:395-402.
Hironaka et al. 1992. The effect of thickness of steam-rolled barley on it utilization by beef cattle. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 72:279-286.
Kennelly et al. 1988. Influence of high-moisture barley on the feedlot performance and carcass characteristics of feedlot cattle. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:811-820.
Mathison, G.W. 1981. Rye distillers grains with solubles in feedlot diets containing ground or rolled barley. Pages 40-42 in 60th Annual Feeders’ Day Report, University of Alberta.
Mathison et al. 1991a. Effect of feeding whole and rolled barley in the morning or afternoon in diets containing differing proportions of hay and grain. J. Anim. Prod. 53:321-330.
Mathison et al. 1991b. Rate of starch degradation, apparent digestibility and rate and efficiency of steer gain as influenced by barley grain volume-weight and processing method. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71: 71:867-878.
Mathison et al. 1997. Effect of tempering and degree of processing of barley grain on the performance of feedlot cattle. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 77: (submitted for publication).
McAllister et al. 1990a. Use of formaldehyde to regulate digestion of barley starch. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 70:581-590.
McAllister et al. 1990b. Effect of ruminal microbial colonization on cereal grain digestion. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 70:571-579.
McAllister et al. 1996. Controlling digestive disturbances in feedlot cattle. Pages 253-271. Proceedings of the 1996 Canadian Society of Animal Science Annual Meeting, Lethbridge, July 7-11.
McDonald and Hamilton. 1980. The effect of proportion of whole or rolled oats in steer rations on their digestibility. Aust. J. Exper. Agric. Anim. Husb. 20:268-271.
Moran, J.B. 1986. Cereal grains in complete diets for dairy cows: a comparison of barley, wheat and oats and three methods of processing oats. Anim. Prod. 43:27-36.
Morgan and Campling. 1978. Digestibility of whole barley and oat grains by cattle of different ages. Anim. Prod. 27:323-329.
National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1984 & 1996. Nutrient requirements of beef cattle.
Nicholson, H.H. 1969. Grain processing: Research results. Pages 16-19 in 14th Annual Stockman’s Day Report. Department of Animal Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.
Orskov et al. 1980. A note on the effect of different amounts of NaOH on digestibility by cattle of barley, oats, wheat and maize. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 94:271-273.
Owens et al. 1986. Limits to starch digestion in the ruminant small intestine. J. Anim. Sci., 63 : 1634-1648.
Robinson and Kennelly. 1988. Influence of ammoniation of high moisture barley on its in situ rumen degradation and influence on rumen fermentation in dairy cows. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:839-851.
Rode, L and Beauchemin, K. 1998. New Ideas for Processing Barley. Proceeding International Beef Symposium. Lethbridge, January, 1998.
Tolland, P.C. 1976. The digestibility of wheat, barley and oat grain fed either whole or rolled at restricted levels with hay to steers. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 18:25-28.
Tolland, P.C. 1978. Effect of level of feeding a mixed ration of whole wheat grain and hay on the digestion of wheat grain by steers. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 18:25-28.
Yaremcio et al. 1991. Effect of ammoniation on the preservation and feeding value of barley grain for growing-finishing cattle. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:439- 455.
Zinn, R.A. 1993. Influence of processing on the comparative feeding value of barley for feedlot cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 71:3-10.
Zinn, R.A. 1994. Influence of flake thickness on the feeding value of steamrolled wheat for feedlot cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 72:21-28.

Feed processing and preservation

• Basic technologies applied to conversion of primary products into feed for animals
• Processing of feed
• Fodder and silage processing
• Beneficial feed micro-organisms; feed microbiology; methods of using microbes in feed processing, fermentation processes; fodder yeasts, etc
• Equipment and processing techniques of feed manufacture
• Materials and methods for the preservation of feed

For: animal feeding: aquatic, see M12
terrestrial, see L02
constituents and composition of feed, see Q54
distribution and marketing of feed, see E70
feed contamination and toxicology, see Q53
feed industry, see E21
feed inspection, hygienic control of feed, see Q53
feed quality, see Q54
feed standards, see E70
feed storage, see J10-J14
food processing and preservation, see Q02
legislative aspects of quality control of feed, see D50
primary processing and conservation of non-food or non-feed agricultural products, see Q60
protection of agricultural products, see J10-J15
storage of agricultural products, see J10-J15
transport of agricultural products, see J10-J15

Feed Processing

Physical or chemical changes in feedstuffs that influence their nutritional value. A partial listing of different processing terms includes:
Ammoniated:
Combined or impregnated with ammonia or ammonium compounds.
Blended:
Two or more feed ingredients combined. NOTE: Blending does not imply a uniformity of dispersion.
Chopped:
Particle size reduced by cutting with sharp-edged instruments. i.e., knives.
Cleaned:
Undesired materials removed using screens, magnets or forced air.
Condensed:
Reduced to a more dense form by removing moisture.
Cracked:
Particle size reduced by a combined breaking and crushing action.
Crimped:
Feed rolled using grooved rollers.
Cured:
Feed preserved by drying, chemical additives or other preservation methods.
Dehulled:
Grains, fruit or nuts whose seed coat or outer shell has been removed.
Dehydrated:
Moisture removed by heat.
Ensiled:
lant materials preserved by anaerobic fermentation.
Exploded:
Grain kernels swollen to several times their original size by first steaming under pressure to force moisture into the kernels, and then exposing to air.
Extracted:
Fat or oil is removed by heat and mechanical pressure (mechanically extracted) or by organic solvents (solvent extracted).
Extruded:
Feed forced through narrow openings under pressure.
Fermented:
Feed subjected to an aerobic or anaerobic process in which yeast, molds or bacteria act to produce alcohol, acids, B complex vitamins or antibiotics.
Flaked:
Feed rolled or cut into flat pieces with or without prior steam conditioning.
Ground:
Particle size reduced by mechanical shearing, wearing or impact.
Irradiated:
Feed treated, prepared or altered by exposure to a specific level and duration of radiation.
Micronized:
Feed subjected to dry heat by microwaves emitted from infrared burners, followed by rolling.
Mixed:
Feeds combined by agitation to a specified degree of dispersion.
Pearled:
Process of reducing dehulled grains into smaller smooth particles by machine brushing or abrasion.
Pelleted:
Feed compressed into a circular or cubic mass, forced through die openings by a mechanical process and cut at predetermined lengths.
Popped:
A commercial process to improve appearance and palatability of beans; promoted as a method to improve protein digestion.
Rendered:
The process of removing and/or clarifying one substance (i.e.. fat, water) from another, either through the use of heat or by pressing and draining a solid residue of cooked material.
Roasted:
Feed heated to a desired temperature in an oven for a period of time. Roasting increases the availability of carbohydrates and may reduce protein breakdown in the rumen.
Rolled:
Grain passed between a set of rollers splitting the coarse outer grain shell.
Shredded:
Similar to chopped, except feedstuffs are cut longitudinally rather than cross-wise.
Steamed:
Ingredients treated with steam to alter physical and/or chemical properties.
Steeped:
Feed soaked in water or other liquid.
Textured:
A ration containing fine materials in a pelleted form, mixed with coarser ingredients.

Grain Milling Terms

• Bran: Coarse outer grain coating, separated during processing.
• Endosperm: Starchy portion of seed.
• Flour: Soft, finely ground meal consisting mainly of starch and gluten. Obtained during grain milling.
• Germ: The seed embryo.
• Gluten: Tough nitrogen containing substance remaining after the flour is washed free of starch.
• Grain: Seed from cereal plant, e.g., oats, corn, wheat.
• Grits: Coarsely ground grain from which the bran and germ have been removed.
• Groats: Cereal seeds with hulls removed.
• Middlings: A byproduct of milling. Consist of granular particles containing differing proportions of the grain, endosperm, bran and gluten.
• Mill By-Product: A secondary product obtained in addition to the principal milling product.
• Mill Dust: Fine feed particles of unspecified origin resulting from feed handling and processing.

Statistical Process Control: Techniques for Feed Manufacturing

Statistical Process Control: Techniques for Feed Manufacturing (Part 1 & Part 2)

Feed Machinery

· Bagging Systems,
· Bulk Storage,
· Anti-bridging devices
· Bagged or bulk purchases
· Bulk ingredients storage
· Handling of feed ingredients
· Computerised Dosing Systems,
· Conditioners,
· Conveying Equipment,
· Airlocks
· Augers
· Belt Conveyors
· Bucket elevators
· Buckets
· Cleaners
· Drag Conveyors
· Screw Conveyors
· Pneumatic Conveyors
· Divertors
· Elevator legs
· Seperators
· Slide Gates
· Turnhead Distributors
· Vibrator
· Cookers,
· Coolers,
· Crumblers,
· Dryers,
· Extruders,
· Fat Sprayer,
· Freezer,
· Hammer Mill,
· Hammers
· Hammermill perforated screens
· Particle size reduction
· Hammer mill rods
· Liquid Addition Machinery,
· Mixer,
· Pellet Mill,
· Pellet Dies
· Standard relief
· Variable relief
· Tapered relief
· Countersunk pellet dies
· Counterbore depth and Different die reliefs
· Pellet die materials
· The life of a pellet die
· Pellet Rolls
· Compression Ratio
· Pellet Presses
· Scales,
· Screening Equipment,
· Steam Boiler

Feed Additives / Supplements

Minerals
· Vitamins
· Water Soluble Vitamins
· Thiamine
· Riboflavin
· Pyridoxine
· Pantothenic Acid
· Niacin
· Biotin
· Folic Acid (Folacin)
· Vitamin B12
· Ascorbic Acid
· Inositol
· holine
· p-Aminobenzoic Acid
· Lipoic Acid

· Fat Soluble Vitamins
· Vitamin A
· Vitamin D
· Vitamin E
· Vitamin K

Feed Ingredients

· Barley
· Beet pulp pellets
· Blood Meal
· Bone Meal
· Casava leaf meal
· Copra meal
· Corn / Maize
· Corn gluten meal
· Cottonseed
· Cottonseed meal
· Fish meal
· Fish silage
· Limestone
· Linseed
· Maize
· Meat meal
· Meat and bone meal
· Molasses
· Oat groats
· Oil Cakes
· Palm Oil Byproducts
· Palm Kernel Cake
· Palm Oil Sludge
· Peanut Meals
· Poultry by-products
· Feather meal
· Rapeseed meal
· Rice
· Rice Groats
· Rice Bran
· Rice Husks
· Rice Polishings
· Rye
· Sago
· Sesame Cake
· Shrimp meal
· Skim milk powder (dried)
· Sorghum
· Sorghum Grain
· Sorghum Forage
· Soybean
· Soybeans
· Soybean Meal
· Soybean Husks
· Squid meal
· Sunflower
· Sunflower Seeds
· Sunflower Meal
· Sunflower Hulls
· Sweet Potato
· Tapioca
· Wheat
· Wheat Bran
· Wheat Grain
· Wheat Germ Meal
· Wheat Gluten
· Whey, dried
· Yeast, Brewers
· Yeast, Sugar Cane